Introduction
We all have an abundance of intuition information about construction paper. We’ve cut it or pasted it on, made fun paper chains, and, more often than not we have watched our work diminish and fall apart over the course of time. Despite its apparent impermanence construction paper did make its way from the classrooms of kindergarten to artist studios in which it was utilized as an initial support, an art material, as a collage substrate and for an artist’s mounting or a secondary support. It was utilized by artists like Abraham Walkowitz, Jackson Pollack as well as Robert Motherwell, to name only a handful. Nowadays it is usually located in the laboratory for conservation of paper. The condition is typically fragile because of the wood pulp content and the colors (if there are any) fade. Although its ailment offers few treatment options but there’s a possibility through preventive treatment.
My fascination with construction paper started when, as an undergraduate student studying conservation I was shown the pastel drawings on colored paper by the twenty-first century artist Abraham Walkowitz in the collection of the University of Delaware (fig. 1). The medium-weight, colored weave papers resembled what’s often referred to as construction paper. They were in excellent condition after being handled, and showed only minimally, if any. The colors were vivid, but they were fading and rough around the edges.
This article will provide an overview of the production and origins of the early 20th century’s construction papers, and considering these Walkowitz papers, expect some stability when you have adequate storage and housing. For the purposes of definition construction paper refers to the comparatively inexpensive machines-made, woved wood pulp papers colored in the vat using organic dyes that are synthetic and natural.
Colored Papers in the Classroom
The term”construction paper” likely originated in school, where making things and the process of making things were closely connected to the color of the paper used in education. The words “school papers,” “poster papers,” and “colored school papers,” discovered in a variety of early 20th century trade dictionaries, define the kind of paper that falls within with the term “construction paper. A more modern definition from the Dictionary of Pulp and Paper (1980) defines this paper in terms of “a school paper used for cut-outs, crayon drawings, watercoloring, fingerpainting, etc. It is usually made from mechanical wood pulps.”
In the latter half of the 19th century, an variety of educational colored papers was advertised to teachers through school supply catalogs (Andrews 1878; Babb 1897-1998). The J.L. Hammett Co. catalog (1895) of school equipment lists a range of colored papers. It also differentiates between the colored papers coated with color as well as the ones made of “engine colored,” or colored with the vat (Hammett 1895). The benefits of “engine” or beater-colored papers are many. The Hammett Co. asserts that the “colors are blended with papers’ pulp during the manufacturing process and are not able to be rubbed away by water or other sources …” (Hammett 1895). According to the catalog, are evenly in color on the two sides and are good to fold. The green coloring agents — in contrast to those that were on the marketthey do not pose an health risk since they are dyes and “stains” are arsenic-free.
The creation of colored structures was a serious enterprise in the latter part of the nineteenth century, and was it was in no way related to the creation of ornaments for the holidays or Valentines. Kindergarten curriculums included basic color theory that made use of color wheels, prisms and colored papers. The Bradley Scheme of Color Instruction was a prime example, and proclaimed an educational concept “based on the adaptation of the scientific laws of color as discovered in nature to the analysis and combination of pigmentary colors in art” (Hammett 1895).
To enhance the theoretical knowledge activities, hands-on color experiments were given to youngsters as “occupations” or “gifts.” They were “gifts” were formally defined and identified by numbers, and comprised a variety of tasks including embroidering, folding perforating, weaving, and folding colored papers. The thirteenth gift, for instance, is dedicated to cutting paper. In the A.H. Andrews (1878) catalogue, the present was one that includes the supplies of squares of colored paper that the children were instructed to fold and cut into different patterns that were symmetrical. The Hammett catalog describes the gift as a thirteenth one. was later updated to include that “the child’s inclination to destroy by cutting is aided with such a clever manner that it produces stunning outcomes. “(Hammett 1895). The activities in this present were intended to be repeated and the samples kept and analyzed to track progress over time.
Although it is obvious that construction was taking places in classrooms, “construction paper” was finally associated with a kind of educational art paper and also artists’ papers, at the beginning of the 20th century. In the Prang Company supply catalogue (1911), “Tinted Drawing and Construction Papers” were advertised. The catalogue description states that the paper is “suitable for pencil, charcoal, crayon, watercolor and construction work. Used with water color or with colored crayons they produce particularly attractive results. They are also extensively used for mounting drawings and designs, both in black and white and color.” (Prang 1911).
Colored Papers in the Studio
Prior to the introduction of synthetic dyes, also known as dyes that were synthetic, or “engine colors” mentioned in catalogs for schools Papermakers and artists applied colors to paper using pigments and a range in vegetable dyes, stains and even a few a long time. Papers with blue coloring, for example were produced during The Near East and Asia from the Middle Ages (Bruckle 1993).
In England the UK, blue papers and drab colors were produced by papermills. In 1796, Thomas Cobb patented a method of dyeing pulp using the basic principles of dyeing textiles. The finest Cobb papers were dark tones that included mostly deep browns and olive shades (Krill 1987). In England artists working with watercolor, like Turner could choose from a wide range of brown, blue, and drab papers which they came to be known throughout in the 18th century. Certain of Turner’s blue paper were derived from sugar loaf wrapping sheets (Bower 1990). Therefore making use of color paper by artists, even ones that had industrial roots were not news at the beginning of the 20th century.
Pastel artists too used colored paper in the 18th century at least prior to. Instruction manuals advised artists to choose from a range of shades of muted blue and grey for chalk and pastel (Goupil). The late 19th century, due to the rise of industrial production of paper and the introduction of new aniline dye techniques there were a wide variety of cheap colored papers became available. When pastel saw a resurgence popular in America towards the end in the late 19th century, art students had the ability to select from a range of colored artist’s papers, in addition to cheaper commercially manufactured Cartridge and charcoal papers. as well as mottled papers, sandpapers and color papers (Shelley 1989). The use of less expensive colored commercial papers is evident in, for instance, the green laminated board of Mary Cassatt’s Woman on a Bench and in the machine-made brown wrapping paper used by Edwin Austin Abbey’s Dirge of the Three Queens (Shelley 1989). While Abraham Walkowitz’s choice for deep red, brown and green construction paper to draw his pastels was in line with the current fashions, the technique used for the production of these papers was brand newand not tested.
Through the twentieth century, the plethora of accessibility and the variety of colors offered by construction papers enticed many artists. For instance, the construction paper was used as a mounting for two works made on papers from Marc Chagall in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art Both construction papers, which were removed from the main supports but kept exhibit the typical signs of degrading. One of the mounting papers, which is which is now gray, displays the brown discoloration from oxidation that occurs at the edges, which is typical of these types of papers. In a different Chagall mount, the edges of construction paper hidden beneath the support show the deep red hue. The boarders not protected have turned brown. The two exhibit minor mottlingcaused by the process of dyeing as well as uneven fading resulting from the mixed fibers. The color shift is more striking in a different Chagall work that was mounted on a construction paper, where the color of pale violet shifts to an edgy brown. Each of these mounts in fact, were selected by the artist, as evident by the comparison of manuscript annotations on the mount with the signature of the artist (Ellis 1997).
It’s not surprising, considering the wide range of colors constructed paper was also employed as a collage material. Gertrude Green’s collage of abstractionism called Composition The Collection in the collection of Philadelphia Museum of Art, displays distinct color shifts. In this painting there are collage elements that overlap and adhesive accretions shielded certain parts of the construction paper from the light. The protected areas show the shift in color between brown and green, and from cool tan to warm the tan. It is hard to determine whether George Bunker’s collage of 1956 is included to the Quarry The painting, which is part of collections of in the collection of Museum of American Art, was designed as a monochromatic work that focuses on brown and Tan. Comparative studies with other works of Bunker suggest otherwise, as Bunker was a fan of subtle but distinct variations in hue. Since the collage is coated it is not able to peak beneath the flaps to determine changes in color.
When a collage component happens to separate from its primary support, for example in the case of a collage made by Ilya Bolotowsky (The Metropolitan Museum of Art) There were obvious changes in color both in the primary and secondary support were apparent. The point here isn’t about how the changes were observed and in what locations but rather that the intention of the artist cannot be discerned through a peek or through chance. In these works on construction paper artist’s intentions are obscured due to lighting and the effect of time.
The speed of expression more than colorfastness was a key element of Jackson Pollack’s work. Jackson Pollack. Pollack utilized orange construction paper to serve as the base for his sketch executed in black ink Untitled 1943, from collections of in the collection of Hirshhorn The Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Gardens. Antoinette Owen has written about the loss of paper resulting from the extreme fragility and brittleness that the papers exhibit (Owen 1986).
In the mid century, the lack of permanence in color of construction paper shouldn’t be considered an issue. Matisse’s cutouts for the book Jazz (1947) were created from Canson and Montgolfier paper, both of which were coated with Linel’s Extra-fines Gouaches. The method was selected in part due to the high colorfastness and durability of the colors (Perry 1994).
Manufacture: Pulping and Dyeing
All construction paper, whether they are found at the college or the studio of an artist are rooted in the 19th century’s end, which was when the early techniques of manufacturing industrial wood pulp paper along with synthetic organic dyes merged at the table.
Construction papers from the 20th century were primarily made from softwood fibers, which were mechanically as well as chemically pulped. In terms of chemicals, the process of sulphite was typically used for paper of low quality, such as newspapers, magazines that were cheap as well as “poster” papers (Roberts 1924). Sulphite-based pulps were produced by heating low resin softwood chips under pressure at high temperatures in a mixture of magnesium, calcium and ammonium bisulfite (Browning 1977). Balsam fir, spruce and hemlock were commonly utilized. A smaller amount of hardwoods like poplar were occasionally employed. The addition of groundwood to sulphite-based pulps in different proportions according to what was the grade of the final product. Sulphite was the most popular method of pulping throughout the U.S. until about 1930.
The Manufacture of Pulp and Paper The textbook (Brassington 1929) describes construction paper, also known as “poster paper” as a “colored newsprint” that is light-weight and consists of roughly 50-70% groundwood and the remaining of sulphite pulp that has not been bleached. This is in accordance with fiber analysis from several Walkowitz drawings, though undated, could be between 1910 and 1920. The examination of the fibers under magnifying (100X) showed the presence of softwood fibers whose color spectrum and morphology suggest unbleached Sulphite (Mayer 1993). Testing for microchemicals (Graff C-Stain and the A-20 Stain) demonstrated positive reactions to unbleached sulphite. (Mayer 1993) These results are backed by fiber researcher Walter Rantanen (Supervisor, Fiber Science Group,
Integrated Paper Services, Inc.) (who said that the early construction papers also contained small amounts of bast and cotton (Rantanen 1993). This is also confirmed by two Walkowitz documents, both of which contained only a tiny amount (less than five percent) of cotton (Irving 1993, Knipe 1996). The fibers used in these papers remained constant until around 1960, as per Rantanen the year that sulphate and manufacturing of Kraft overtook sulphite in the production in these documents.
Aniline Dyes
The union between dye and pulp was an important factor in the early history of construction papers. The new aniline dyes were cheap and had excellent tinctorial strengths, making the perfect choice for industrial pulping processes like sulfurite. In addition, they provided more colors as compared to vegetable dyes and pigments that typically were less tinctorial strong.
Berlin Aniline Works c. 1904. Hagley Museum & Library Pictorial Collections.
The first aniline dyestuff, which was the color mauve, was invented in the hands of Sir Henry Perkin in 1856. The discovery came about through attempts to make synthetic quinine through the oxidation of aniline oils. Aniline dyes were extensively used for textiles from 1856, but their usage for paper production was not widespread up to about 1890. (Tucker et al. 1924). The aniline dye industry flourished throughout Europe especially in Germany between 1890 until 1914. The Germans realized, from the beginning that it was important to have an industry that would generate large profits during peacetime and that could be easily used to manufacture weapons in times of the war. Since aniline dyes were created using coal tar, these crude products can yield a range of intermediates that range from explosives and dyes to toxic gases (Tucker et al. 1924).
The Dyestuff Situation The book chronicled in detail the “dye famine” and its effects on the use of aniline dyes across the U.S. Hagley Museum & Library Pictorial Collections.
It was the Germans heavily subsidized this business towards the end of the 19th century, and controlled the market until around 1880. From 1880 until 1914 there were a handful of American firms were producing aniline dyes, but they could not compete against the subsidized companies from Central Europe. After the war, German exports of dyes stopped. The “dye famine,” as it was referred to and was documented in the U.S. Department of Commerce bulletin published on the 16th of November, 1916 (fig. 3). The early month of 1915 were described as in the following manner: “The possibility of a complete cessation in shipments was, however, constantly present as a menace, hanging like the sword of Damocles over the head of every consumer of synthetic dyes. the threatened danger arrived eight months ago, when an embargo on the shipment of dyes of German origin to neutral countries came into effect. Since March 15 [1915] no wares in this category have been received. This deadlock still exists.”
What was American as well as the other “neutral” paper manufacturers doing regarding coloring papers? In the years of war the use of vegetable dyes and pigments which were not used for many years (at least, not in a large scale industrial setting) were introduced to the market because of the scarcity of aniline-based dyes (Tucker and co. 1924). The one of the Walkowitz paper constructions, which was dark brown in the color (fig. 4.) It appeared under the microscope (100X) and was colored instead of dyed (Mayer 1993). The dark black and brown particles of pigment were seen between the paper fibers, which by themselves, were not very colored. Energy Dispersive X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis, conducted by the Senior Scientist at Winterthur, Janice Carlson, indicated the high concentration of iron (fig. 5). The analysis revealed more than trace amounts of iron than could normally be present in an article. Iron was not present in the form of manganese. This suggests this pigment was sienna (Carlson 1997). Although one test can’t conclusively prove a date in the “dye famine” of the War period for the making of the paper it does provide another clue that could indicate a date in the mid teens. This is confirmed by the factual information on the relationship between Isadora Duncan and also by the stylistic resemblance to other sketches of Duncan that, in fact, total more than 3000. They were mostly created during an interval of twenty years from approximately 1910 to 1930.
A high level of pigment could help explain the reason these drawings continue to appear so appealing. Although clearly dyes are visible, it is possible that they were heavily augmented by pigment. Additional testing of the sample using both XRF and XRF to determine the presence of organic pigment as well as thin-layer chromatography to determine evidence of organic synthetic dyes could be a good direction for further research. Concerning the history of aniline pigments (and the evolution of the American technique) concerns, things were going up in the mid- 1920’s. Names of companies like DuPont, Goodyear, Monsanto and
Sherwin-Williams put a lot of funds to R&D. DuPont especially was extremely aggressive in the R & D department, attracting German researchers to Delaware by offering huge incentives to pay their salaries (Hounshell as well as Smith 1988).
The situation regarding dyes was somewhat uncertain, but at the time of 1920 as indicated by an Milton Bradley company catalogue for school items. In an advertising of “Bull’s Eye” papers, listed under the term construction paper at the rear of the catalog is the following disclaimer: “Owing to the uncertain state of the dye market the prices for the paper fluctuate constantly. Therefore, we recommend that you make your writing based on the current prices.” (Bradley 1920).
There was no doubt in 1924 at DuPont Company. DuPont Company. The publication of 1924 was titled the Dyeing of Paper , (Roberts 1924) included an array of aniline dyes that were designed to be used in a variety of applications. An explanation of “poster paper” offers a recipe for unbleached sulphite that is cut with Alum, and contains hundreds of dyed construction papers examples. In 1924, a McGraw Hill textbook entitled the Manufacture of Pulp and Paper It described and illustrated many American technological advancements in the process of dyeing papers (Tucker 1924). Particularly, emphasis was paid to American methods of making samples of paper for testing its strength as well as color and resistance to water, light alkali, as well as chlorine.
The most popular of the aniline dyes used in coloring paper pulps was the basic acid, direct and basic dyes. The basic dyes are the main kind of water-soluble dyes that were used in the coloring of paper. They offered the benefits of lower cost and high tinctorial strength and brilliance. Basic dyes are the salts that make up bases of color, and usually are referred to as hydrochlorides, chlorides or sulfates. (Smook 1982). The dyes are attached to non-cellulosic impurities like lignin on the papers (Britt 1964). Basic dyes have an incredibly high affinity for sulphite that has not been bleached pulps, that contain large amounts of lignin and bind to the dyestuff (Tucker and co. 1924). The dyes are of a less attraction to groundwood pulps because the lignin molecules are less available to the dye molecules. (Tucker et al. 1924). Basic dyes do not have a lot of affinity to bleached pulps because a large amount of lignin is eliminated during processing (Britt 1964). Basic dyes can cause mottling in mixed furnishes made of unbleached and bleached pulps, and even in the conventional mixture of unbleached sulphite as well as groundwood pulps. In the latter case the case, mottling is controlled in the vat through keeping the temperature low and first dyeing the more robust ground wood pulps, before adding the unbleached sulfite sulfite. (Roberts 1924). As a group the basic dyes exhibit low resistance to acids, light, alkalis or chloride (Smook 1982). Basic dyes tend to be easily soluble when mixed with hot alcohol (Britt 1964).
Acid dyes consist of sodium salts that have extremely low molecular weights sulfuric acids. Direct dyes are similar to compounds with higher molecular weight (Britt 1964). Acid dyes are typically used to color surfaces due to their inability to have a preferred affinity for specific fibers. While they do not produce stripes of fibers Acid dyes do not have any affinity to cellulose and need mordants, such as size and the alum. They offer better stamina and light-stable than the basic dyes, even though they typically produce darker shades. Direct dyes, however will dye the fiber with no mordants or dyeing aids. Direct dyes create somewhat muted colors and are employed for tissues that absorb water, like facial tissue, in which size and alum are not necessary (Britt 1964).
The dyes that are used in those Walkowitz paper are most likely made up of acid and basic dyes. A list of construction papers also known as “poster papers,” composed of sulphite that has not been bleached that was published in the Dyeing of Paper It is estimated that 60% of colors were basic dyes while the remaining were mainly acids (Roberts 1924). Basic dyes were utilized to create different shades of blues (DuPont Victoria Blue), reds (DuPont Safraninen T) as well as yellow (Auromine O), green (Victoria Green), magenta (DuPont Methyl Violet NE and Fuchsine Powder) and brown (DuPont Basic Brown). Acid dyes were utilized for the shades of yellow and orange, for higher quality papers. The basic yellow, Auromine O was thought to be appropriate for paper that was less expensive to consume like wrapping papers that needed only a little lightfastness
(Roberts 1924). Sometimes, dyes were employed together to increase brilliance and lightfastness. Pulp could be dyed using the acid color at the bottom and then top-coated, after sheet formation, using the basic dye. The color lake created an intense color that could not be produced using an acid dye by itself as well as the color of a more durable one (Roberts 1924). the primary dye, Auromine O is usually used to cover acid oranges as well as to shade basic browns, blues and even green (Roberts 1924).
Conclusion
The story of construction papers can be summarized by the smash hit song of Deborah Harry “Radiate and Fade Away.” the vibrant, basic dyes as well as deeper acid dyes were used in a variety of applications, even however their lifespan was rather short. The exciting colors that were made possible by aniline dye process, as well as the paper that was made cheaper through sulphite processing, satisfied the demands of artists who were not aware working in various ways. It shouldn’t be a surprise when you consider the current context in which materials like staples and tapes that are pressure sensitive are employed with a purpose and purpose, to see construction paper – once moreshowing its self-destructing tendencies. So, despite all we’ve learned about the dangers that come with construction papers, it’s appeared and, without doubt be seen in a myriad of collections.
Due to the sensitivity of aniline dyes to alkali, water and alcohol, there’s very little choice for treatment with water. In fact, certain aniline dyes may be sensitive to the humidity levels that are high that are commonly employed during relaxation procedures. Cleaning of surfaces also can be a challenge due to that soft felt exterior of these papers is susceptible to scratching. So, treatments for the majority of construction paper are not as extensive. However, the physical support for these fragile papers should be given the highest priority. Construction papers must be handled as gently as is possible. To prevent brittle edges from being damaged objects must be placed in strong 4-ply or eight-ply 100 100% Ragboard mats. Since aniline dyes can be sensitive to the alkali and sulfate, the mats should be made of unbuffered or neutral pH papers. If only buffered materials for housing are available then the object must be layered with a neutral pH paper to ensure that it doesn’t contact the alkaline paperboard. Many colors are extremely sensitive to light. However, certain aniline dyes are reported to fade in dark. A moderate method of exposure to light is recommended, especially since the degrading reactions in lineous papers can also be triggered by light. While certain of them will degrade themselves even in the most pristine of conditions, the incredibly rich hues from these Walkowitz illustrations are symbol of optimism.